Peer review

CONTEXT: Land degradation in red and lateritic soils of India, particularly in the northeast, poses a serious threat to agroecological stability, agricultural productivity, soil health, and rural livelihoods. Agroforestry is increasingly recognized as a sustainable approach for restoring degraded ecosystems, rejuvenating soil health, and improving farmers' livelihoods, yet region-specific empirical evidence remains limited. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the long-term ecological and economic viability of various agroforestry systems for rehabilitating degraded land and enhancing the delivery of multiple ecosystem services in red and lateritic soils of Northeast India. METHODS: A decade-long agroforestry field experiment (2014-2024) with silvi species Gmelina (Gmelina arborea Roxb), fruit plant sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck), and grain legume pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp) under monoculture and integrated agroforestry system was conducted in West Bengal in eastern India. Seven systems (monoculture and agroforestry-based) were evaluated using eleven biophysical and economic indicators, including biomass recycling, soil organic carbon, enzyme activity, microbial resilience, net margin, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The tri-component agroforestry system (Gmelina-sweet orange-pigeon pea) showed the highest multifunctionality index, producing 7.26 t ha-1 yr-1 of recyclable biomass, and significantly improving soil carbon, dehydrogenase activity, water-holding capacity, and biodiversity. Economically, this system outperformed monocultures with 2-3 times higher net margin and energy efficiency. Although associated with higher GHG emission, this system offered net environmental benefits through enhanced carbon sequestration and resilience. SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates that the locally adapted agroforestry systems have potential to restore degraded red and lateritic soils while delivering broad ecosystem services and improving farmers' livelihoods. These results support the scaling of such systems across similar agroecological zones in India and globally.

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